Types of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer can begin in different areas of the breast — the ducts, the lobules, or in some cases, the tissue in between. In this section, you can learn about the different types of breast cancer, including non-invasive, invasive, recurrent, and metastatic breast cancers. You can also read about breast cancer in men.

• DCIS — Ductal Carcinoma In Situ
• IDC — Invasive Ductal Carcinoma
• IDC Type: Tubular Carcinoma of the Breast
• IDC Type: Medullary Carcinoma of the Breast
• IDC Type: Mucinous Carcinoma of the Breast
• IDC Type: Papillary Carcinoma of the Breast
• IDC Type: Cribriform Carcinoma of the Breast
• ILC — Invasive Lobular Carcinoma
• Inflammatory Breast Cancer
• LCIS — Lobular Carcinoma In Situ
• Male Breast Cancer
• Paget's Disease of the Nipple
• Phyllodes Tumors of the Breast
• Recurrent and Metastatic Breast Cancer

 For further information can visit: - http://www.breastcancer.org/symptoms/types

Why are men’s noses bigger?

Researchers have discovered why men's noses are bigger than women's and the answer could also explain why our ancestors like Neanderthals had bigger noses.

 Human noses come in all shapes and sizes. But one feature seems to hold true: Men's noses are bigger than women's. The size difference, the researchers believe, comes from the sexes' different builds and energy demands: Males in general have more lean muscle mass, which requires more oxygen for muscle tissue growth and maintenance. Larger noses mean more oxygen can be breathed in and transported in the blood to supply the muscle. The researchers also note that males and females begin to show differences in nose size at around age 11, generally, when puberty starts. Physiologically speaking, males begin to grow more lean muscle mass from that time, while females grow more fat mass.

Prior research has shown that, during puberty, approximately 95 per cent of body weight gain in males comes from fat-free mass, compared to 85 per cent in females.

"This relationship has been discussed in the literature, but this is the first study to examine how the size of the nose relates to body size in males and females in a longitudinal study," says Nathan Holton, lead author of the paper, published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology. "We have shown that as body size increases in males and females during growth, males exhibit a disproportionate increase in nasal size. This follows the same pattern as energetic variables such as oxygenate consumption, basal metabolic rate and daily energy requirements during growth."

It also explains why our noses are smaller than those of our ancestors, such as the Neanderthals.

The reason, the researchers believe, is because our distant lineages had more muscle mass, and so needed larger noses to maintain that muscle. Modern humans have less lean muscle mass, meaning we can get away with smaller noses.

"So, in humans, the nose can become small, because our bodies have smaller oxygen requirements than we see in archaic humans," Holton says, noting also that the rib cages and lungs are smaller in modern humans, reinforcing the idea that we don't need as much oxygen to feed our frames as our ancestors. "This all tells us physiologically how modern humans have changed from their ancestors."

Prior research appears to support Holton's findings. In a 1999 study published in the European Journal of Nutrition, researchers documented that males' energy needs doubles that of females post-puberty, "indicating a disproportional increase in energy expenditure in males during this developmental period," Holton and his colleagues write.

Another interesting aspect of the research is what it all means for how we think of the nose. It's not just a centrally located adornment on our face; it's more a valuable extension of our lungs.

"So, in that sense, we can think of it as being independent of the skull, and more closely tied with non-cranial aspects of anatomy," Holton says.

Preventing Breast Cancer

By: Altaf Patel

 

 

Breast cancer generally occurs as a result of mutations in the genes, but not all tumours are cancerous.

The gurus tell us that most women are unhappy with their breasts. Consider the media hype with buxom women adorning the pages of newspapers, this is not surprising. Nevertheless, more women these days are worried about breast cancer. Whenever a woman is diagnosed with breast cancer; her relatives and friends march into doctors' offices worrying that they are also afflicted.

Ever since the BRCA1 gene was found in 1990, several articles linked it with cancer in the mutated sate. The purpose of this gene is to repair damaged DNAs. But if the gene itself is damaged then it increases the risk of breast cancer. The methods of diagnosis of these mutated gene was initially patented by Myriad Genetics and Laboratories. In June, 2013, the Association for Molecular Pathology filed a law suit against Myriad Genetics in the US Supreme Court. The court ruled that a DNA segment is a product of nature and therefore not patent eligible. Myriad Genetics'patent on BRCA1 and 2 were invalidated.

The BRCA 1 and 2 genes are tumour suppressors and ensure stability of the DNA. Researches have identified several hundred mutations of both BRCA 1 and 2. Many of these are associated with an increased risk of cancer. Women with abnormal BRCA 1 and 2 genes have an 85% risk of developing breast cancer by the time they are 90. The risk of developing ovarian cancer is about 55% for women with BRCA1 mutation and 25% for women with BRCA 2 mutations. However, not all such mutations of the gene are harmful.

Some mutations can, in fact, be beneficial, while others neutral. Some studies show that mutations in the BRCA1 gene increases a women's risk of uterine, colonic and pancreatic cancer as well. BRCA 2 mutations increase the risk of stomach, gall bladder, pancreatic cancer and skin cancer (melanoma). That is not to say that these genes are exclusively in the female species. In a male, BRCA mutations increase the risk of prostrate cancer, testicular cancer, breast cancer, and pancreatic cancer. Male breast cancer, prostratic and pancreatic cancer appear to be more strongly related to the BRCA 2 mutation. Other genetic mutations such as TP53, PTEN, STK11/LK B1 are also carcinogenic but the majority of breast cancers are linked to BRCA1 and 2.

Researches estimate that 12% of women develop breast cancers if they have such genetic mutations. Similarly 1.4% of the population develop ovarian cancer as compared to 15% and 40% with these genetic mutations. These mutations are more common in certain races.

The Ashkenazi Jewish populations have 5 times these genetic mutations as compared to the general public. Norwegians, Dutch and Icelanders too have higher proportion of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genetic mutations. There are at present no guidelines on who should be tested but if you have breast cancer diagnosed in a more than two first degree relatives then you have the increased risk of having cancer. Similarly, if you have a combination of 2 or more 1st or 2nd degree relatives diagnosed with ovarian cancer, then you are at increased risk of ovarian cancer.

If you are of Ashkenazi Jewish descent then if you have any first degree relative diagnosed with breast or ovarian cancer, and two second degree relative on the same side of the family diagnosed with breast or ovarian cancer then you are at increased risk for cancer.

There are other risk factors besides genetic in the development of breast and ovarian cancers. A family history is already stated, and history of having breast cancer once is at an increases risk of developing breast or new ovarian cancer.

Studies suggest that women on birth control pills have chances of getting breast cancer. There is however a decrease in ovarian cancer in such women and this protective effect is enhanced by the duration of use of birth control pills. Such pills also reduce the risk of developing ovarian cancer in women with the BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation. The use of hormone replacement therapy still remains the hot topic of discussion.

Data show the HRT with estrogen and progestin increase the risk of not only breast cancer but heart attacks and stroke as well. The impact of use of estrogen on breast cancer is uncertain but there is an increased risk of heart attack and stroke as well. Breast cancer can be also associated with increased fat diet, alcohol consumption and obesity. Studies have documented the decrease in cancer with physical activity.

In essence, surveillance is important. This may be done with mammography and MRIs. For ovarian cancer, transvaginal ultrasound and the monitoring of antigens must be done. Ever since Angelina Jolie created had her breasts removed, more people are inquiring about this. Prophylactic surgery tries to remove the tissue at risk. Bilateral removal of healthy breasts do help, but it is not a guarantor against developing breast cancer. Chemoprevention with Tamoxifen has been shown to reduce the risk of developing breast cancer. Raloxifene also helps to reduce the risk in post menopausal women of breast cancer. These approaches are less drastic and more logical.

Self examination recommended for prevention of breast cancer. One should look for puckering of skin, a nipple that has changed position, redness, soreness or swelling. Look for fluid or discharge from the breasts.

Certain studies show that the diagnostic yield from mammography done was 53% but jumped to 82% when sonography was added. Recommendation for such screening change from time to time, but it makes sense to have annual screenings. Not all tumours are cancerous and these decisions are best left to your doctors. Reasonable care shall go a long way in preventing or diagnosing early the big C

The Breast Way To Stay Healthy

Women have long complained about saggy boobs and crinkly cleavages - so how can we keep our boobs as young and healthy as the rest of us? (By Charlotte Ward)

Women have long complained about saggy boobs and crinkly cleavages – but it is far from a storm in a D-cup.
According to Steve Horvath, a ­geneticist at UCLA’s medical school in the US, different parts of the body age at different rates and our boobs do indeed take the brunt of it.
“Healthy breast tissue is about two to three years older than the rest of a woman’s body,” he explains.
So how can we keep our boobs as young and healthy as the rest of us? We asked the experts...

The wrong bra size?

With around 80% of women believed to be wearing ill-fitting lingerie, we could be inadvertently contributing to ­sagging breasts, bad posture, back pain or even abrasions, rashes and irritable bowel syndrome.
Julia Mercer, lingerie fit expert for Marks & Spencer, says: “Many factors including weight loss or gain, ­medication, contraceptive pills, the menstrual cycle, pregnancy and ­menopause can affect breast size. It’s important to buy new bras every year to make sure you have the correct size.”
Get an in-store fitter to measure you. Don’t forget a sports bra for exercise!

Food for thought

Dietitian Nichola Whitehead, of nicsnutrition.com, says:  
“Our bodies are made from the nutrients that we consume, meaning a diet lacking in essential vitamins and minerals may show in the condition and look of our skin."
"Sweet potato, spinach, kale and butternut squash are rich in vitamin A and can help nourish the delicate skin in the breast area and other parts of the body.
"Vitamin C is good for collagen production and vitamin E is great for skin production.”

Cut down on booze

It’s not just food you should be thinking about – that wine habit could also affect your breast health.
Alyssa Burns-Hill, holistic hormone health specialist and author of Weight Loss Winners & Dieting Downfalls, explains: “Alcohol can triple the oestrogen levels in a woman’s body.
“A lot of breast cancers are hormone sensitive and having higher oestrogen levels could cause cancer cells to multiply."
“By minding oestrogen levels you reduce your potential risk of ­oestrogen-related cancers.”
Alyssa recommends cutting down your alcohol intake and eating ­broccoli, cabbage, brussels sprouts and greens as they contains indoles – believed to aid the body in reducing oestrogen levels and helping fight cancer.

Get hands-on

“Knowing the signs and symptoms of breast cancer and what your boobs are normally like could save your life,” says Kristin Hallenga, of CoppaFeel! which recently launched a campaign to get boob-check reminders on lingerie.
You should also look out for:

• Nipple discharge, a rash or crusting of the nipple or surrounding area
• Lumps, thickening, or skin texture changes like puckering and dimpling
• Changes in size and shape, nipple inversion and changes in direction
• Constant pain in the breast or armpit area

Moisturise!

A wrinkly decolletage can really age you. TV beauty expert Hayley Sparkes says: “The bust is an area we often neglect as we focus on our face.
"But boobs are exposed to friction from clothes and underwear which can end up chaffing the delicate skin. It is worth investing in products to help combat that.”

Try these

• Lovely Jubblies Breast Cream, Lush (£16.95)

Contains almond oil, cocoa butter and evening primrose oil that will really seep into your skin to keep the bust area nice and soft.

• Nutriganics Drops of Youth, The Body Shop (£22)

Hayley says: “It’s worth trying to prevent lines and crinkles with an anti-ageing product. This is ideal – an active product that targets the skin as well as softening and ­moisturising.”

• Lavera Sun Sensitive Neutral Sun Cream SPF20 (£11.66)

Skin on the neck and chest gets almost as much sun as the face and, being much thinner than skin elsewhere, it is more prone to showing the tell-tale signs of ageing. This sunscreen is suitable for even the most sensitive skin and keeps damaging UVA and UVB rays at bay.